Electronic Toll Collection (ETC)

INTRODUCTION
Electronic Toll Collection (ETC) is a technology that allows for electronic payment of tolls. Please also see Congestion Pricing for further information on ETC and Congestion Pricing.
An ETC system is able to determine if a car is registered in a toll payment program, alerts enforcers of toll payment violations, and debits the participating account. With ETC, these transactions can be performed while vehicles travel at near highway cruising speed. ETC is fast becoming a globally accepted method of toll collection, a trend greatly aided by the growth of interoperable ETC technologies.
The Rationale for Electronic Toll Collection
ETC systems are an improvement over conventional toll collection techniques. Some of the benefits for drivers include:
• fewer and shorter queues at toll plazas by increasing toll booth service rates;
• faster and more efficient service—the customer does not need to stop or have toll fees on hand;
• the ability to pay by keeping a balance on the customer’s account or charging a registered credit card;
• mailed toll statements—the customer no longer has to request a receipt.
Some of the benefits for toll operators include:
• lowered toll collection costs;
• better audit control by centralized user accounts;
• expanded capacity without being required to build more infrastructure.
For everyone, some of the benefits of ETC include:
• fuel savings;
• reduced mobile emissions by reducing or eliminating deceleration, waiting times, and acceleration;
• possible reduced drain on public monies, if the system is more self-sustaining or if the system was built/run via a public-private partnership arrangement.
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SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
Electronic Toll Collection (ETC) is used in cordoned urban areas, over bridges, in tunnels, in High Occupancy Toll (HOT) lanes, on toll roads, or through turnpikes. Toll charges are generally based on mileage, maintenance requirements, or congestion levels.
Until recent years most ETC systems were based on using radio devices in vehicles that would use proprietary protocols to identify a vehicle as it passed under a gantry over the roadway. More recently there has been a move to standardize ETC protocols around the Dedicated Short Range Communications protocol that has been promoted for vehicle safety by the Intelligent Transportation Society of America, ERTICO and ITS Japan. (Wikipedia)
Whilst communication frequencies and standards do differ around the world there has been a trend toward vehicle infrastructure integration (VII) around the 5.9GHz frequency (802.11.x WAVE).

A toll collection system can be either open or closed (cordoned). Most current cordoned area pricing schemes use ETC. This closed system requires all entrances and exits to have either manual tollbooths or an ETC system. Nearly all manual toll systems have converted to an ETC system. For example, the cordoned toll area in Singapore, which was first implemented in 1975, has substituted its manual toll collection system with ETC points.
In an open toll system, such as a toll road, toll stations are located along the facility. Around 70% of the toll roads in the United States now use ETC.
Toll lanes for a facility with an ETC system may by operated in several ways. Lanes may accept ETC-only payment, manual-toll-only payment, or either form of payment. See our Telecommunications Diagram on ETC for more information. An ETC system typically includes four components:
1. Automatic Vehicle Identification (AVI)
2. Automatic Vehicle Classification (AVC)
3. Transaction Processing
4. Violation Enforcement
Automatic vehicle identification (AVI) entails the use of electronic radio frequency tags installed in the vehicle. The tags either passively or actively communicate with roadside readers to identify vehicle ownership. Once ownership is determined, the toll cost can be deducted from the corresponding account.
Traditionally, tolls have been differentiated by vehicle class. Automatic vehicle classification (AVC) technologies installed in the roadway can determine a vehicle’s class by its physical attributes. Transaction processing is the process of debiting customers’ accounts and answering customer inquiries. There are several methods used for violation enforcement, including automatic number plate recognition (ANPR) technology. Highway patrol officers are usually posted by unmanned toll booths, acting as a visible, and effective, violation deterrent.
The four components are somewhat independent, and various toll agencies have contracted out functions separately. In some cases, this division of functions has resulted in difficulties. In one notable example, the New Jersey E-ZPass regional consortium's violation enforcement contractor did not have access to the violation processing contractor's database of customers. This, together with installation problems in the AVI system, led to many customers receiving erroneous violation notices incurring high levels of customer dissatisfaction. The contractor’s violation system’s net income, after expenses, was negative. (Wikipedia, citation below)
Technologies Used
The technologies used in ETC systems are described briefly below.
• Automatic Vehicle Identification (AVI)
• Automatic Vehicle Classification (AVC)
• Video Enforcement Systems (VES)
• Vehicle Positioning Systems (VPS)

Automatic Vehicle Identification (AVI) Technologies:
The automatic vehicle identification (AVI) component of an electronic toll collection (ETC) system determines vehicle ownership for charging purposes.

Radio-Frequency Identification (RFID) and Automatic Vehicle Identification (AVI)
Current ETC systems use radio-frequency identification (RFID) tags and transponders to automatically identify vehicles.
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is an automatic identification method, relying on storing and remotely retrieving data using devices called RFID tags. In ETC, these systems are sometimes simply referred to as transponders. Common RFID tags are stickers with an approximately .5 millimeter silicon chip and a small, flexible antenna. They rely on radio frequency waves to communicate with an electronic reader or antennae. The antenna transmits the information to the lane controller, which then sends the data to the host for processing. (See ETC Diagram) In ETC, RFID tags offer a contact-less technology and can be read through various environment conditions
RFID technology has been around since World War II and passive RFID tags are often used as anti-theft devices in stores. RFID tags that can gather and store information are somewhat controversial because of the potential to abusively gather information on people and invade privacy.
RFID tags in ETC systems can be passive or active. Active RFID tags are often used in large-scale ETC systems like Fastrak in California and throughout the Northeastern United States. Passive tags are much less expensive than active RFID tags. They are being used in Georgia, Texas, and certain developing nations.

Active RFID tags use an internal power source, such as a battery, and have the following characteristics:
1. On-board transmitter
2. Greater range but higher cost
3. Requires less power from reader
4. Finite life
Passive RFID tags are powered by energy from the reader and have the following characteristics:
1. Backscatter technology
2. Smaller, Lighter, less expensive
3. Almost unlimited life
4. Shorter range
5. Requires higher power from reader
(citation below)
Active RFID transponders consist of an integrated circuit attached to an antenna, typically a small coil of wires, plus some protective packaging.
In passive ETC systems, the lack of an onboard power supply means that the device can be quite small: commercially available products exist that can be embedded in a sticker. See the companies section for more information on companies who supply Passive RFID tags for ETC.
Passive RFID tags may become even less expensive. The average cost of a current RFID tag is 50 cents. Fluidic Self-Assembly, a method in which multiple chips are poured into a slurry, then shaken and assembled into a substrate, affixed to plastic, then cut out. In 2002, his Morgan Hill, Calif., company Alien Technology applied FSA, originally invented by Smith to integrate lasers onto silicon, to the manufacture of RFID tags. With FSA, Alien can currently product 2,000,000 tags per hour for about 20 cents eac , with the price expected to drop to 5 cents in three years. (http://www.citris-uc.org/publications/newsletter/february2005#feature2%20)
The Basics on RFID and ETC
In electronic toll collection (ETC), an RFID transponder in the vehicle communicates with an antenna at the toll gate via dedicated short-range communications (DSRC), a type of radio frequency waves. Active RFID transponders have proved to have excellent accuracy and can be read at highway speeds. The major disadvantage of using active RFID transponders in ETC is the cost of equipping each vehicle with a transponder. This can be a major start-up expense, if paid by the toll agency, or a strong customer deterrent, if paid by the customer. Below is a summary of general RFID transponder information.
1. Active RFID Transponders can be read-only or read-write. Read-write transponders allow information to be sent back to and stored on the transponder (e.g., the last time that the transponder was read).
2. Nonbattery transponders use radio wave energy to “bounce” information back to the reader. Nonbattery transponders have an “official” life of 15 years but could theoretically last forever.
3. Active RFID transponders have generally been packaged in small plastic cases that are generally mounted with Velcro strips to the windshield of a vehicle. The case is required for the internal electronics and batteries.
4. Recently, ETC providers have been introducing nonbattery-powered transponders that are packaged as stickers (or decals), which are applied to the windshield of a vehicle.
5. Transponders used for high-speed toll collection can range in cost from $10.00 to $40.00 apiece. Most battery powered transponders used for toll collection application range from $20.00 to $35.00 per unit. The sticker tags cost approximately $10.00 per unit. (Washington State Comprehensive Tolling Study, reference below)
6. Recently, policy considerations have suggested that vehicles that generate reduced emissions should pay reduced tolls. The identification of “green” vehicles can be accomplished through the use of RFID transponders.
Interoperability
While RFID transponders have many common features, the deployment of five different DSRC protocols for electronic toll collection in the United States have significant impact on interoperability. These deployments are generally geographically separated with limited need for interoperability initially. However, the lack of interoperability among these AVI technologies has been recognized as a significant problem.
Accordingly, U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) has commissioned a consortium of the major transponder manufacturers to develop a national DSRC standard. The device is being built around a newly allocated radio frequency (5.9 GHz) and the specific requirements of DSRC for transportation applications. The new DSRC transponder should be available for testing in early 2006, with a deployment decision by the U.S. DOT and the automotive industry expected in 2008. The new transponders could be part of new vehicles shortly after 2010. This means that it will take until at least 20 years for transponders to be incorporated into all U.S. autos, since it takes approximately 15 years for the entire America car fleet to turn over.
Roadside antenna (ETC roadside radio device)
1) These devices are installed at tollgate lanes where ETC can be used. They communicate by radio with the on-board equipment installed in vehicles passing through ETC lanes.
2) Roadside antennas are connected to computers for toll calculation. The tolls are calculated by these computers.
The basic process for ETC with Active RFID transponders is as follows:
1. As the vehicle enters the toll lane, sensors detect the vehicle’s presence (see Figure A).
2. A transponder mounted on the vehicle’s windshield transmits the tag status which is read by an electronic reader or antenna.
3. The antenna transmits the information to the lane controller, which then sends the data to the host for processing.
4. The corresponding customer account is charged. If the vehicle does not have a transponder, or a corresponding customer account cannot be identified, the system classifies the vehicle as a violator and cameras photograph the vehicle and its license plate.
Automatic Vehicle Classification (AVC)
Generally, tolls are differentiated by vehicle class. A vehicle’s class can be determined by the physical attributes of the vehicle, the number of occupants in the vehicle, the vehicle’s emissions, and the purpose for which the vehicle is being used at the time of classification (or some combination of these determinants). Some toll agencies use as many as 15 or more vehicle classes to assess tolls, although for ETC applications, four or five classes are more typical.

To classify a vehicle, a variety of vehicle sensors are used. Treadles count the number of axles as a vehicle passes over them. Light-curtains and laser profilers record the shape of the vehicle, which can help distinguish trucks and trailers. Advanced Inductive Loop sensors embedded in the road surface can determine length, speed, and number of axles of vehicles at highway speeds.

Many locations offer reduced fees to high occupancy vehicles (HOV’s). There are a few companies working on technology that quickly and accurately reads the number of people per vehicle. See Ridesharing for more information.
Vehicle Telematics Systems/GPS-BASED TOLL SYSTEM/ GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite Systems)
“Vehicle Telematics Systems” refers to the integrated use of telecommunications and informatics, also known as Information and Communications Technology (ICT). Telematics have been applied specifically to the use of Global Positioning System (GPS) technology integrated with computers and mobile communications technology.
Vehicle telematics systems may be used for a number of purposes, including collecting road tolls and managing road usage. ETC systems may use GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite Systems) technology to reduce infrastructure costs and to facilitate regional tolling variations such as pollution-tax for highly polluted areas.
GPS-BASED TOLL SYSTEM/ GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite Systems)
Installing a Global Positioning System (GPS) allows a vehicle to locate itself within a given charge area or network. The on-board unit contains the appropriate charging structure, as well as information concerning when the vehicle should be charged. Charges are applied using the position information provided by the GPS system. The charge can either be deducted directly from a smart card located in the on-board unit or stored for later uploading and charging against the customers account or billing the customer.
Charged corridors can be defined around specific zones in urban or rural areas where all vehicles (or specific categories) using the roadway will be subject to charges. The cost of the on-board units is estimated at between $200 and $400, depending on the level of sophistication of the device.
A few toll facilities cover a very wide area, making fixed toll gates impractical. The most notable of these is a truck tolling system in Germany. This system instead uses Global Positioning System location information to identify when a vehicle is located on a tolled Autobahn. Implementation of this system turned out to be far lengthier and more costly than expected. (See German Case Study.)
Vehicle location pricing technology is also being used for truck tolling systems in Switzerland. The Puget Sound Regional Council (PSRC) is conducting a demonstration of value pricing using this approach. The intent of this pilot project is to determine traveler response to value pricing and the effect of pricing on traveler decision making, and to help identify a potential path towards implementation. This technical approach is better suited to regional pricing applications as opposed to facility-based tolling. (Washington State Comprehensive Tolling Study, reference below)
Video Enforcement Systems (VES)- - Automatic Number Plate Recognition (ANPR)
Automatic number plate recognition (ANPR)
Automatic number plate recognition (ANPR) is sometimes known by various other terms: automatic license plate recognition (ALPR), automatic vehicle identification (AVI), car plate recognition (CPR), license plate recognition (LPR), or electronic number plate (ENP) recognition.
ANPR is used for ETC enforcement as well as identification-for-tolling purposes.

ANPR Technology
ANPR uses optical character recognition (OCR) on to read images taken of vehicle license plates. The cameras used can include existing road-rule enforcement or closed-circuit television cameras as well as mobile units which are usually attached to vehicles. Some systems use infrared cameras to take a clearer image of the plates.
Some license plate arrangements use variations in font sizes and positioning – ANPR systems must be able to cope with such differences in order to be truly effective. More complicated systems can cope with international variants, though many programs are individually tailored to each country. Overall, there is an error rate that makes human oversight necessary. (Wikipedia, citation below)
As of 2006, systems can scan number plates at around one per second on cars traveling up to 100 mph (160 km/h). They can use existing closed-circuit television or road-rule enforcement cameras, or ones specifically designed for the task. They are used by various police forces and as a method of electronic toll collection on pay-per-use roads, and monitoring traffic activity such as red light adherence in an intersection.

ANPR for Violation Enforcement
Automated number plate recognition (ANPR) technology is used for enforcement with cameras that capture pictures of license plates of vehicles that fail to relay a usable tag ID. Information regarding the owners of such vehicles is obtained from the State’s vehicle registry. The major problem with ANPR is some inaccuracies that require manual verification. Inaccuracies may be due to lack of plate standards, dirty and damaged plates, incorrect plate mounting, differences in vehicle design and plate position, and ambiguity/similarity in letters/numbers (e.g. London VES errors arose from the similarity of letter O and number 0).
ANPR to Avoid the Need for Transponders
Most ETC systems that used ANPR to avoid the need for transponders have converted. Still, the 407 ETR near Toronto is a good example of an ETC system that relies heavily on ANPR for charging non-transponder-account holders.
Here, a system of cameras captures images of vehicles passing through tolled areas, and the image of the number plate is extracted and used to identify the vehicle. This allows customers to use the facility without any advance interaction with the toll agency. The Canadian system charges around $2.00 per ANPR-incurred charge. (Note: If you drive just 4 round trips per year on 407 ETR, then the total cost of a transponder is less than incurring the tolls charged via ANPR.)

The disadvantage is that fully automatic recognition has a significant error rate, leading to billing errors and the cost of transaction processing (which requires locating and corresponding with the customer) can be significant. Systems that incorporate a manual review stage have much lower error rates, but require a continuing staffing expense.
ANPR can be used to store the images captured by the cameras as well as the text from the license plate, with some configurable to store a photograph of the driver. Systems commonly use infrared lighting to allow the camera to take the picture at any time of day. A powerful flash is included in at least one version of the intersection-monitoring cameras, serving to both illuminate the picture and make the offender aware of his or her mistake. ANPR technology tends to be region specific, owing to plate variation from place to place.
Concerns about these systems have centered on privacy fears of government tracking citizens' movements and media reports of misidentification and high error rates. However, as they have developed, the systems have become much more accurate and reliable.

ANPR Difficulties
There are a number of possible difficulties that the software must be able to cope with. These include:
1. Poor image resolution, usually because the plate is too far away but sometimes resulting from the use of a low-quality camera.
2. Blurry images, particularly motion blur
3. Poor lighting and low contrast due to overexposure, reflection or shadows
4. An object obscuring (part of) the plate, quite often a tow bar, or dirt on the plate
5. A different font, popular for vanity plates (some countries do not allow such plates, eliminating the problem)
6. Circumvention techniques
Blurry images make OCR difficult – ANPR systems should have fast shutter speeds to avoid motion blur.
To avoid blurring it is ideal to have the shutter speed of a dedicated camera set to 1/1000th of a second. Because the car is moving, slower speeds could result in an image which is too blurred to read using the OCR software, especially if the camera is much higher up than the vehicle. In slow-moving traffic, or when the camera is at a lower level and the vehicle is at an angle approaching the camera, the shutter speed does not need to be so fast. Shutter speeds of 1/500 can cope with traffic moving up to 40 mph (64 km/h) and 1/250 up to 5 mph (8 km/h).
On some cars, towbars may obscure one or two characters of the license plate. Bikes on bike racks can also obscure the number plate, though in some countries and jurisdictions, such as New South Wales, "bike plates" are supposed to be fitted.
ANPR Circumvention techniques
Vehicle owners have used a variety of techniques in an attempt to evade ANPR systems and road-rule enforcement cameras in general. One method increases the reflective properties of the lettering and makes it more likely that the system will be unable to locate the plate or produce a high enough level of contrast to be able to read it. This is typically done by using a plate cover or a spray, though claims regarding the effectiveness of the latter are disputed. In most jurisdictions, the covers are illegal and covered under existing laws, while in most countries there is no law to disallow the use of the sprays.
Police enforcement
Closed-circuit television cameras such as these can be used to take the images scanned by automatic number plate recognition systems
Closed-circuit television cameras such as these can be used to take the images scanned by automatic number plate recognition systems. (Wikipedia, citation below)
Optical Character Recognition (OCR) software to provide for Automatic Number Plate Recognition (ANPR), either at the lane or as a back office function.
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ASSESSMENT
ETC Key Results

Market Demand Studies and Consumer Surveys: Motorist Acceptance of ETC Market demand studies and/or consumer surveys have been conducted to measure motorist acceptance of ETC systems, as well as their preferred ETC system characteristics. These studies typically research how demand for ETC varies with system characteristics or with user characteristics. The former includes payment and account renewal methods, transponder cost or rental fees, transponder location (in the vehicle), and even toll plaza configurations. Users are usually characterized by differences in their trip purpose or trip frequencies.
Findings show that motorists who travel frequently on the toll facility are more likely to express interest in ETC. High trip frequencies (five or more times a week) are typical of work commuters, who comprise the most likely market for ETC applications. Commercial vehicle operators, who may travel several times a week over the same facility, are also a large potential market of ETC users. In their case, however, the decision to subscribe to ETC is made by the employing company, not the driver, and lack of standardization across different ETC systems appears to hinder their acceptance.
Systems that do not allow post-payment of tolls or credit-card –linked accounts usually allow payment at the toll station by methods other than ETC. Two alternatives to this practice were implemented in Toronto (Highway 407) and Melbourne (City Link) respectively. In Toronto, enforcement cameras take pictures of the license plates of vehicles not equipped with a transponder; the picture is used to identify the owner of the vehicle, who is then issued a bill. In Melbourne, casual users need to buy a day pass before entering the toll road. Vehicles holding day passes do not have a physical card but rather are included in an electronic list of vehicles which may enter the facility without transponders.
In terms of system cost and payment renewal options, the results are also intuitive. In general, the more limited the number of payment options, the lower the participation rate. Moreover, as users are charged for a transponder deposit, annual rental fees, and/or per-transaction costs, participation declines.
Treatment of Visitors
Toll technology experts indicate that enforcement is usually not easy if both ETC users and non-users use the same corridor. This is a valid concern since visitors (drivers) to the system may not have readable transponders. One option is to let visitors drive for free. This would require the system to keep track of such vehicles (via Automatic Number Plate Recognition (ANPR) so that fines are not pursued.
Ideally, visitors would be required to purchase a ‘day pass’ to use the priced corridors. Melbourne, Australia’s CityLink program has a similar daily pass option for its users (CityLink, 2004). Visitors would be asked for their vehicle license plate information on purchase of a day pass (which could be bought online or at a roadside store, as in London’s cordon toll application). Vehicles without transponders, which use the priced corridors, would be detected by ANPR. And vehicles tied to a purchased ‘day pass’ would be removed from the violator list at day’s end. (http://www.ce.utexas.edu/prof/kockelman/public_html/TRB05CBCP.pdf)
ETC Benefits
Toll Lane Capacity
• Vehicles equipped with ETC require less time than all other vehicles to conduct a toll transaction. Thus the average service rate of a mixed toll lane is generally higher than a manual lane, depending on the proportion of tagged vehicles in a mixed-use lane.
• When exclusive ETC lanes are provided, the total number of vehicles serviced by all of the toll lanes is higher than it is when all lanes are mixed.
Vehicle Waiting Times
• An increase in a toll lane service rate causes a decrease in the average waiting time of vehicles at the toll plaza.
• Electronic toll collection saves New Jersey Turnpike travelers 2.1 million hours each year; reduces fuel wasted at toll stations.Analysis of traffic conditions at 27 toll stations on the New Jersey Turnpike indicated E-ZPass electronic toll collection saves cars and trucks about 1.8 million and 291,000 hours of travel time, respectively, each year. Reduced congestion was estimated to save 1.2 million gallons of fuel each year, save money, and reduce emissions.
Reduction of Vehicle Emissions
• Vehicle emissions are reduced because vehicle speeds through the toll plaza are increased and accelerations and decelerations reduced. A typical vehicle speed profile at a toll plaza shows vehicles decelerating as they approach the end of the queue (or the toll booth) to almost zero speed, and then accelerating to prevailing highway speeds after exiting the booths. With ETC, vehicles will decelerate to higher speeds, or may not decelerate at all.
• The implementation of E-Z Pass at the New Jersey Turnpike in September 2000 reduced fuel consumption by 1.2 million gallons per year (i.e. due to reduced queuing). Estimates of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) emissions have been reduced by 0.35 tons per weekday with 80 percent of the reduction resulting from improved light-duty vehicle performance. Estimates of Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) emissions have been reduced by 0.056 tons per weekday with 58 percent of the reduction resulting from improved heavy-duty vehicle performance.
Reduction of Toll User Costs
• ETC can potentially reduce the cost of processing toll transactions. When E-Z Pass was implemented at the New Jersey Turnpike in September 2000, delays at toll plazas were greatly reduced. This resulted in user costs of $19.0 million per year for passenger cars and $6.1 million per year for trucks, making a total annual saving of $25.1 million.
Simplified Infrastructure and Accounting System
• ETC requires far less roadside infrastructure than manual tollbooths.
• By automating toll collection and vehicle counting, ETC simplifies the accounting system as well as the allocation of revenue between peak and non-peak hours.
Vehicle Positioning Systems (VPS)/Global Positioning Systems (GPS) require less infrastructure
• GPS-based ETC systems have notable advantages over standard dedicated short-range communication (DSRC) systems. One advantage is that road infrastructure, which can be expensive and often infeasible due to space constraints, is no longer needed. Another advantage is that vehicle positioning systems offer greater flexibility in defining or changing payment systems. ETC often needs alterations when changes in traffic or land-use patterns occur; with traditional ETC systems, this would require actual changes in ETC road infrastructure. However, with a GPS-based system, this could be readily done by redefining the "virtual" toll areas. The main disadvantages of GPS-based systems are its higher costs of implementation.
Wireless communications have greater data capabilities
• Various forms of wireless communications technologies have been proposed for intelligent transportation systems. Short-range communications (less than 500 yards) can be accomplished using IEEE 802.11 protocols or the Dedicated Short Range Communications standard being promoted by the Intelligent Transportation Society of America and the United States Department of Transportation. Theoretically the range of these protocols can be extended using Mobile ad-hoc networks or Mesh networking.
• Longer range communications has been proposed using infrastructure networks such as WiMAX (IEEE 802.16), Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) or 3G. Long-range communications using these methods is well established, but unlike the short-range protocols these methods require extensive and very expensive infrastructure deployment. There is lack of consensus as to what business model should support this infrastructure. (wikipedia)
Costs
Toll Agency Costs
• Cost per transaction of an ETC system: from $0.05 to $0.10. In comparison, the cost per transaction in a manual collection system is approximately $0.086. Cost projections estimated for the Pennsylvania Turnpike Authority indicates that a full ETC interchange can cost as little as one-quarter to one-fifth the cost of a conventional cash toll interchange. While a conventional interchange requires 25 full-time employees (assuming four toll booths), at a cost of up to one-third of the toll collection revenue, the ETC option would require only one maintenance person and account support (ITS International, 1997).
User Costs
• ETC users are usually required to purchase, rent, or place a deposit on the in-vehicle equipment. Some providers offer transponders free of charge.

The cost of a transponder varies between $15 and $50. Systems sometimes charge a deposit for a transponder. ETC systems may also charge rental fees. Additional out-of-pocket costs may include a per-transaction cost and/or service fees. Most systems require a minimum initial deposit of $20 or more on the user's account, if the user does not register a credit card. If a credit card is registered for automatic deposit, there are minimal (if any) user costs in the realm of user charges and transaction fees.
Implementation and Operational Challenges
Payment Enforcement
ANPR Processing for Toll Evaders – see ANPR section
Payment enforcement can be labor intensive. Payment enforcement methods can depend on the payment options available at the toll lane and on whether tollgates are used. Video cameras are installed to photograph the license plates of vehicles that evade payment on lanes without tollgates and on ETC-only lanes. Violation pictures are often reviewed manually. License plates are identified and checked against the toll agency or department of vehicle registration records in order to identify the owner of the vehicle.
Legal and Technical Criteria for Payment Enforcement
The payment enforcement system must meet legal and technical criteria. The legal criteria include all state legal procedural and record keeping requirements as well as those related to admissibility of evidence in court (i.e. in case tickets are contested). The technical requirements are related to the accuracy of the violation detection and notice issuance system. This accuracy is expressed in terms of the number of violations issued in error for every 100,000 issued violations. The ITS America ETTM (Electronic Toll Collection and Traffic Management) Task Force recommends a maximum of 3 per 100,000, with a desirable goal of 1 per 100,000. Field tests in Singapore resulted in 100% charging accuracy and 100% assignment of fraud vehicles, estimated over 7,700 transactions. It would appear that this magnitude of sample size is not large enough to statistically ensure that the system is operating at the required level of accuracy, however more information is needed to be able to state this conclusively.
Automatic Vehicle Classification (AVC)
The in-road sensors used to classify vehicles at tollbooths require extensive infrastructure. Recent developments in automatic vehicle classification may lead to electronic smart tags that can transmit a user’s account information as well as their vehicle’s class. Although not yet widely implemented, these tags could greatly simplify the classification process.
To speed up the classification process, toll agencies usually collapse their vehicle classification system into at most four to ten classes. Contrary to this practice, the California Department of Transportation chose to request a system able to classify vehicles into its existing 17 classes. The chosen ETC provider failed to achieved the accuracy specified for the automatic vehicle classification system (99.95%), and as a result has needed to redesign and retest its technology, postponing the opening of ETC on the San Francisco Bay Area bridges by several months.
Communications
Although wireless communication is becoming the preferred mode of data transmission, it still has its limitations. For the most part, currently available ITS wireless information transmission services suffer limitations with respect to data capability, coverage, and interoperability.
User Privacy
One of the most frequently voiced concerns over ETC systems is the user privacy issue. Planners have been concerned that the general public would reject ETC for fear of having their movements recorded by the government. By and large this appears to not be a problem for existing systems. In fact, user surveys show that motorists prefer methods of payment that are not anonymous, such as credit cards. However, this should not be construed as meaning that patrons are indifferent to having information about their travel released. Toll agencies find that they still have to protect themselves, and their patrons, against unauthorized use of account information. Besides ensuring the security of all data transfers, toll agencies find it useful to draft legislation prohibiting the use of patron travel information for purposes other than toll collection and enforcement.
Interoperability
The deployment of ETC is well established in North America and overseas. The E-ZPass Program, under the Interagency Group in the eastern part of the United States, involves over 20 separate toll agencies and 11 million transponders. The FasTrak Program in California has over 1.25 million transponders and is statewide. Out of this experience, key customer service expectations have been identified based upon experience at other toll facilities, and market research, including surveys and focus groups.
Customer Service Expectations:
1. One “Gizmo” – Only one on-board device (i.e., transponder) would be required in the customer’s vehicle for electronic toll collection payment;
2. One Number – A single customer service telephone number would be available for all tolling customer inquiries; and
3. One Statement – A consolidated statement would be provided to the customer for all activity at all tolling facilities.
Interoperability issues are in play at several levels. At the transponder level, a customer can use the same physical transponder on all of the interoperable facilities, but the customer must set up a separate account with each agency or facility. This approach is used for electronic weigh station bypass programs, where trucks are equipped with the same transponder, but must register for the program that is used by a specific state. For example, the program in Washington State uses the same transponder for the program in California, but the trucker must be registered with both programs.
Peer-to-Peer interoperability means that separate customer service centers are maintained by agencies that have agreed that they will exchange transactions and account files so that the customer has only one transponder and one account. However, for transaction and violation inquiries, customers may be required to deal with separate customer service centers, depending on the facility that they used. The E-ZPass Program, which extends from Maine to Virginia with over 20 separate toll agencies and 11 million transponders, is an excellent example of the successful implementation of a Peer-to-Peer approach.

Consolidated Operations is the ultimate form of interoperability. It establishes a single customer service organization where there is one account, one system, and one point of contact. The single consolidated operations approach has evolved in many areas, because of the potential cost savings and the provision of consolidated customer service. A recent example is the consolidation of systems and customer service centers in the San Francisco Bay Area from two to one. (Washington State Comprehensive Tolling Study, reference below)
Deployment in Existing Plazas
Most current applications of ETC involve retrofitting manual or automatic coin machine toll lanes with new ETC equipment. Besides managing traffic disruptions during the reconstruction phase, toll authorities need to decide how to introduce ETC within their current toll plaza configuration. Labor issues should also be considered when implementing ETC on an existing toll facility. Union contracts need to be renegotiated as the number of available jobs decreases and as job descriptions change. Although not necessarily opposed to the installation of ETC technologies, unions will try to protect their turf.
Funding Issues
Increasingly, countries are looking at public-private partnerships to implement ITS projects.
Political opposition in United States’ states such as Washington and Arizona makes the privatization of toll roads across the United States far from assured in the near term. Private enterprises must contend with considerable hurdles before receiving construction approval. Operators report that some of the highest costs of an ETC project can result during preconstruction phases. Tasks such as lobbying for passage of privatization legislation, acquiring land, raising investment capital, and conducting detailed environmental studies can cost of millions of dollars over several years.

Funding Issues: Trailblazers
Decades ago, European governments began looking toward the private sector for help, and Spain in the 1960s had private concessionaires built its autopista network. France followed with private autoroute concessions in the 1970s. Typically, these concessionaires were consortia made up of construction firms and banks. That basic arrangement is being used in the United States today.
Funding Issues: Public-Private Partnerships
In the 1980s, the United Kingdom became the leading proponent of PPPs in Europe. In 1981, the Conservative government issued the so-called Riley Rule, which provided for private-sector involvement in transportation infrastructure development when the benefits of doing so exceeded costs.

The Thatcher government adopted the Private Finance Initiative (PFI) in 1992 as the preferred approach for developing infrastructure of all types for the British government.
Funding Issues: Shadow Toll
The PFI ushered in the “shadow toll” approach. Under shadow toll, the public- sector project sponsor pays “tolls” to the private concessionaire based on the performance of the facility, often measured in terms of traffic flow, safety, and availability. Drivers themselves do not pay tolls. The major advantage of shadow toll to the private concessionaire relates to traffic risk. By not requiring drivers to pay tolls, their choice of which route to use is based entirely on time and convenience, and is much easier to predict. The downside of this approach is that a payment cap limits the profit that the concessionaire can make in the franchise. For the government, the benefits include speeding up project delivery, bypassing the need to obtain government funding in future budget cycles, and incenting the concessionaire to achieve high performance. A total of 10 DBFO shadow toll projects involving more than 480 miles of roads and a construction value of about $2 billion were awarded by the British Highways Agency.
Other European nations such as Finland and Spain emulated the British approach. But shadow toll is a cumbersome approach that requires a lot of traffic data. The British, Finish, and Spanish projects all involved upgrades of existing assets, whose traffic data already existed This problem was made evident when Portugal wanted to use shadow toll for 7 new road projects costing 2.7 billion Euros. The sheer size of the investment program rendered the approach infeasible. In addition, the experiment would have overwhelmed the budget of the Junta Autónoma de Estradas (the Portuguese highway agency) when an annual outlay of $700 million would have been required for shadow toll payments.
Availability Payment
The availability payment approach can be viewed as the simplified form of shadow toll. Like shadow toll, the public sponsor of a facility pays the private concessionaire; users of the facility do not. But unlike shadow toll, availability payment does not require large volume of information to determine performance. This simplification has made availability payment the preferred approach for new concessions in which the public sponsor, rather than users, of the facility pays. In the United States, the freight tunnel to the Port of Miami is the most recent example of this approach. http://transportation.house.gov/hearings/hearingdetail.aspx?NewsID=51
See “Orange County congestion pricing” case study for one example of private-public partnership in the United States.

ELECTRONIC TOLL COLLECTION

ELECTRONIC TOLL COLLECTION


What Is It?

• Electronic Toll Collection (ETC) is a generally mature technology that allows for electronic payment of highway tolls. Click on the "Benefit-Cost Analysis" menu item at left to view ETC benefit-cost spreadsheets.
• ETC systems take advantage of vehicle-to-roadside communication technologies (traditionally via microwave or infrared communication, more recently via GPS technology) to perform an electronic monetary transaction between a vehicle passing through a toll station and the toll agency. ETC systems require Onboard units (OBU), vehicle detection and classification as well as enforcement technologies.
• Essentially, ETC equipment substitutes for having a person (or coin machine) to manually collect tolls at toll booths. In addition, it allows such transactions to be performed while vehicles travel at (almost) highway cruising speed.
• ETC systems will also soon emerge as the most efficient way to implement congestion pricing. See our Telecommunications Diagram on ETC for more information.




Benefits
• A 2005 study found that Electronic toll collection systems reduce environmentally harmful emissions 16 to 63% at toll plazas.
• Increase in toll lane capacity
• Reduction in motorist waiting time
• Convenience for toll payers
• Fuel savings and a decrease in mobile emissions by reducing or eliminating waiting times
• Reduction in toll collection costs and enhancement of audit control by centralizing user accounts
• Greatly enhances the possibility to implement congestion pricing by breaking technical barriers: non-intrusive toll collection requires much less infrastructure, automatic vehicle counting and classification and automated accounting systems.
• Digital license plate recognition devices can accurately and efficiently identify toll violators.
• ETC systems are emerging as a very cost-effective and efficient manner of implementing traffic surveillance. GPS-based ETC may emerge as a more efficient manner of implementing surveillance for a host of reasons.

Costs
• Installation and maintenance of vehicle-to-roadside communication technologies, Onboard units, vehicle detection and classification as well as enforcement technologies.
• Standardization and technical interoperability of systems impose costs.
• Marketing, stakeholder involvement efforts





Where is it implemented?
Europe
Germany, Italy, Austria, France and Czech Republic
• Austria - go-maut [1] for the national Autobahn network in Austria
• Germany - LKW-MAUT for trucks on Autobahns, Germany
• Italy - TELEPASS on Autostrade motorways in Italy
• France - Télépéage usually branded liber-t on French motorways (run by the Federation of French Motorway Companies)(ASFA).
• Czech Republic – premid for trucks on highways (2007)

United Kingdom and Ireland
• Ireland - Eazy Pass on national toll roads in Ireland
• United Kingdom - Tamar Bridge planned for 2006


Rest of Europe
• Portugal - Via Verde (all tolls)
• Turkey - OGS
• Spain - VIA-Tor Telepeaje
North America
Canada
• Southern Ontario - 407 ETR - http://www.407etr.com/
Mexico

United States
• Puerto Rico - AutoExpreso
• Florida - C-Pass in Key Biscayne
• Atlanta, Georgia - Cruise Card in

South America
• Rio de Janeiro, Brazil - Passe Expresso for the Yellow Line
• Santiago,Chile - Autopista Central

Caribbean
• Jamaica – 2006

Asia
• Electronic Road Pricing Gantry at North Bridge Road, Singapore.
• Electronic Road Pricing Gantry at North Bridge Road, Singapore.
• ETCS in Korea
•

Oceania
Australia
• Brisbane, Queensland - Gateway Motorway

mini proj

MINI PROJECT

ABSTRACT



S6 EC1
BATCH NO:1





MEMBERS:

1. ABHISHEK SHYAM A.P
2. HITHU ROHIT
3. PREETHA
4. SREEPRIYA P.C
5. SRUTHI K.K















AUTOMATIC INTELLIGENT TOLL–TAX STATION
Automatic toll tax project is designed ,using a microcontroller & discrete components. Heart of the project is an infrared transmitter and receiver modules ,these strong powerful modules transmits strong IR beam, has a range sufficiently enough for our project.The project is a simple implementation of the toll collection process automatically in a model form.The remittance of toll-tax can be done by using electronic cards.



OPERATION:
In this system,the type of the vehicle whether light or heavy is identified by the height detection mechanism.It consists of two sets of infrared transmitters and receivers.When a vehicle is detected, the corresponding toll will be displayed on the LCD screen and also the device will speaks out " please insert the card" in three languages.Then the electronic card has to be entered into the card slot of the card reader unit to remit the toll-tax.Initially the gate will remain closed.The gate will open only when the toll is successfully remitted and is accordingly indicated. When the vehicle crosses other side of the gate,the exit confirmation system directs the microcontroller to close the gate.The motor driver drives the motor to close the gate as instructed by the microcontroller.The gate is operated by the gate open/close mechanism.The details of tax collection will be stored suitably.Also the display will be updated .The system can maintain the complete details of all the vehicles crossing that way.. so no vehicle can cross without paying.This system can be further developed accordingly for wide applications

cusat s6 ec syllabus

CUSAT B.Tech Degree Course – Scheme of Examinations & Syllabus 2006 EC Sem VI

EC 601 DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
Module 1
Introduction to Digital Communication: Random variables & random process-Detection & Estimation: G-S
Procedure, Geometric Interpretation of signals, Response of bank of correlators to noisy input, Detection of
known signals in noise, Probability of error, correlation & matched filter receiver, detection of signals with
unknown phase in noise.
Estimation concepts & criteria: MLE, Estimator quality measures, Cramer Rao Bound, Wiener filter for
waveform estimation, Linear prediction.
Module 2
Sampling Process: Sampling theorem, Interpolation Formula, signal space interpretation, statement of sampling
theorem, Quadrature sampling of band pass signals, Reconstruction of a message process from its samples, signal
distortion in sampling, practical aspects. PAM, PPM, PWM (Generation & Reconstruction), Multiplexing- TDM,
FDM.
Waveform Coding Techniques: PCM, Channel noise & error probability, Quantization Noise & Signal to noise
ratio, robust quantization, DPCM, Delta Modulation.
Module 3
Digital Modulation techniques: Digital modulation formats, Coherent binary modulation techniques- PSK, FSK,
QPSK, MSK. Non-coherent binary modulation techniques-DPSK. Comparison of binary & quaternary
modulation techniques. M-ary Mod techniques- PSK, QAM, FSK( Block level treatment only)
Base band data transmission: Discrete PAM signals, Power spectra of discrete PAM signals, Intersymbol
interference, Nyquist’s criterion for distortion less base band binary transmission, Eye pattern, Adaptive
equalization.
Module 4
Information theory & Coding: Discrete messages, amount of information, Entropy, Information rate, Coding,
Shannon’s theorem, Channel capacity, Capacity of a Gaussian channel, Bandwidth-S/N Trade off, Use of
orthogonal signals to attain Shannon’s limit, Efficiency of orthogonal signal transmission.
Coding: Parity check bit coding for error detection, Coding for error detection and correction- Block codes-
Coding & Decoding; Systematic and Non Systematic codes; Cyclic codes -Generator polynomial, Generator &
parity check matrices, Encoding & decoding of cyclic codes, Syndrome computation & error detection;
Convolutional coding - Code generation, Decoding- code tree, sequential decoding, State & Trellis diagrams,
Viterbi algorithm; Burst error Correction: Block & Convolutional interleaving; ARQ- Types of ARQ,
Performance of ARQ; Comparison of error rates in coded & uncoded system.
Text Books:
1. Simon Haykin, Digital Communication, John Wiley& Sons, 2005
2. Simon Haykin, Communication Systems, John Wiley& Sons , 2004
3. Taub & Schilling, Principles of Communication Systems, Tata Mc Graw Hill, 1991
Reference:
1. B.P.Lathi, Modern Digital and analog Communication Systems, Oxford University Press, 3rd Ed., 2005
2. Bernard Sklar,Digital Communications Fundamentals and applications ,Pearson edu., 2006
3. Hwei Hsu, Schaum’s Outline, Analog and Digital Communications, McGraw Hill, 2003.
Type of questions for University Examination
Question 1 - 8 short answer questions of 5 marks each. 2 questions from each module
Question 2-5 – There will be two choices from each module .Answer one question from each module of 15 marks



CUSAT B.Tech Degree Course – Scheme of Examinations & Syllabus 2006 EC Sem VI





EC 602 MICROWAVE TECHNIQUES AND DEVICES
Module I
Introduction to microwaves - frequency range, significance, applications. Guided waves: TE,TM,TEM waves,
Velocity of propagation.
Rectangular Waveguide:-TE waves, TM waves, Field configurations, Dominant mode, Degenerate mode,
Impossibility of TEM.
Rectangular Cavity resonators:- Q factor-Unloaded, loaded and external Q - Coupling two cavities.
Module II
Scattering matrix -Concept of N port scattering matrix representation- Properties of S matrix- S matrix
formulation of two-port junction. Microwave Passive devices - Tee junctions, Magic Tee, Rat race,
Corners, bends and twists - Two hole directional coupler. Ferrite Isolator-Circulator- Phase shifter-
Attenuator. S matrix of microwave components (E plane Tee, H plane Tee, Magic Tee, Directional coupler,
Circulator only).
Module III
Solid state microwave devices:- Tunnel diodes –construction and working based on energy band diagrams-
Applications. Principle of operation and applications of Varactor diode, Point contact diode, PIN diode
Transferred Electron Devices -Gunn diode- Two valley theory , modes. Avalanche Transit time devices-
IMPATT and TRAPATT devices. Comparison of GUNN, IMPATT and TRAPPAT . Basic principle of operation
of parametric amplifiers, Manley Rowe power relations, Negative resistance amplifiers.
Module IV
Microwave tubes:- High frequency limitations - Principle of operation of two cavity Klystron, Reflex Klystron,
Traveling Wave Tube Amplifier, Magnetron Oscillator (detailed mathematical analysis not needed), Microwave
BJT structure and performance.
Microwave measurements: Measurement of wavelength, frequency, SWR, impedance, power, attenuation.
Basic concepts of Network Analyzer and Anechoic chamber.
Text Books:
1. Annapurna Das and Sisir K Das, Microwave Engineering, Tata Mc Graw Hill ,5th reprint,2003.
2. B.Somanathan Nair, Microwave Engineering- Theory, Analyses and Application ,Sanguine Technical
Publishers, 2005.
References:-
1. Samuel Y Liao , Microwave Devices & Circuits, Pearson Education, 3rd edition.
2. George Kennedy, Electronic Communication systems, Tata Mc Graw Hill, 4th edition.
3. Jordan and Balmain, Electromagnetic waves and Radiating systems, Pearson education, 2nd edition
4. John A Seeger , Microwave theory, components and devices, Prentice Hall.
5. C.A Balanis, Antenna Theory- analysis and design, John Wiley student edition ,2nd edition.
6. Pozar, Microwave Engineering, Wiley.
Type of questions for University Examination
Question 1 - 8 short answer questions of 5 marks each. 2 questions from each module
Question 2-5 – There will be two choices from each module .Answer one question from each module of 15 marks


CUSAT B.Tech Degree Course – Scheme of Examinations & Syllabus 2006 EC Sem VI



EC/EI 603 VLSI DESIGN
Module I.
VLSI process integration: - fundamental considerations in IC processing - NMOS IC technology - CMOS IC
technology - BiCMOS IC technology. - GaAs technology. Ion implantation in IC fabrication.
The MOS device : (n - channel & p- channel) - capacitance of MOS structure - accumulation, depletion and
inversion, threshold voltage, current equations - characteristics, channel pinch-off.
Second order MOS device effects : short-channel effect, narrow width effect, sub-threshold current,device
saturation characteristics.
Module II.
Switch logic- pass transistors and transmission gates, Gate logic-The basic inverter using NMOS-circuit - current
equations - pull up to pull down ratio- transfer characteristics- Alternate forms of pull up. Basic NAND, NOR
circuits. The CMOS inverter, characteristics – NAND, NOR and compound circuits using CMOS. Other forms of
CMOS logic : pseudo CMOS, CMOS domino logic, n-p logic. Layout design of static MOS circuits – Layout
rules - general principles & steps of lay-out design - use of stick diagrams - design rules - Layout examples of
NAND and NOR.
Module III.
Basic circuit concepts: sheet resistance, area capacitance, delay unit, inverter delays – driving large capacitive
loads, cascaded inverters, super buffers, BiCMOS drivers . Combinational circuits - clocked sequential circuit -
drivers for bus lines. Scaling of MOS circuits: scaling models and scaling factors for device parameters.
Module IV.
Timing issues in VLSI system design: timing classification- synchronous timing basics – skew and jitter- latch
based clocking- self timed circuit design - self timed logic, completion signal generation, self timed signaling–
synchronizers and arbiters.
Text Books :
1. Douglas A Pucknell, Kamran Eshraghian , Basic VLSI Design, Prentice Hall India, 2nd edition.
2. Jan M. Rabaey, A. Chandrakasan, B. Nikolic, Digital Integrated Circuits- A Design perspective, Pearson
education, 2nd edition
References:
1. Thomas E. Dillinger , VLSI Engineering , Prentice Hall International editions.
2. S M Sze, VLSI Technology, Mc Graw Hill, 2nd edition
3. Weste and Eshraghian, Principles of CMOS VLSI Design ,A Systems Perspective ,Pearson Education 2nd
edition.
4. Mead & Conway , Introduction to VLSI System Design , Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1980
5. Fabricius, Introduction to VLSI Design, McGraw-Hill, 1990
6. Charles H Roth Jr ,Fundamentals of Logic Design , Jaico Publishers,4th edition
7. Wolf, Modern VLSI Design, Pearson Education, 3rd edition
Type of questions for University Examination
Question 1 - 8 short answer questions of 5 marks each. 2 questions from each module
Question 2-5 – There will be two choices from each module .Answer one question from each module of 15 marks



CUSAT B.Tech Degree Course – Scheme of Examinations & Syllabus 2006 EC Sem VI
EC604 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION
Module I.
General measurement system: Static characteristics -, accuracy, precision, linearity, hysteresis, threshold,
dynamic range, calibration standards. Errors – measurement of errors, error reduction.
Dynamic characteristics:-Transfer function-first and second order instruments-first and second order response –
dynamic errors and dynamic compensation .Loading effect.
Module II.
Transducers and sensors: Transducers- sensors- active and passive, Temperature measurements:- RTD,
Thermocouples analog and digital transducers .Review of transducers for pressure, velocity, vibration, torque,
temperature. LVDT, piezo electric transducers. Impedance measurement:- dc bridges for low, medium and high
resistance-ac bridges for capacitance and inductance . Sources of error in bridge circuits- precautions. Vector
impedance meter, digital impedance meter. Multimeters :- Principles of analog multimeter- digital multimeter
(dual slope integrations)
Module III.
Signal generators: - AF and RF generators- Function generator- sweep frequency generator- Frequency
synthesizers.
Signal analyzers:- Wave analyzer –spectrum analyzer. Frequency and time measurement. CRO, Digital storage
oscilloscope, sampling oscilloscope. Recording instruments:- self balancing system, strip chart recorders, x-yrecorders.
Module IV.
Industrial Instrumentation: Temperature measurements:- RTD, Thermocouples-different types. Radiation
thermometer, Optical pyrometer. Pressure measurements: Elastic type pressure gauges. Measurement of low
pressure-McLeod gauge, Ionization gauge, solid state pressure transducers. Flow measurements:- Head type flow
meters, mass flow meters. Electromagnetic flow meter, laser-Doppler anemometer, and Ultra sound flow meters.
Data Acquisition System:- signal conditioning , multiplexing and demultiplexing, telemetry-block diagram,
characteristics and different types. Sophisticated and virtual instrumentation systems.
References: -
1. W.D. Cooper , Modern Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques, Prentice-Hall India
2. Bulentley, Principles of Measurement Systems, Pearson education,3rd edition
3. Joseph J. Carr , Elements of Electronic Instrumentaion and Measurement , Pearson education ,3rd edition
4. D. Patranabis ,Principles of Industrial Instrumentation , Tata McGraw Hill
5. C.S. Rangan, G.R. Sharma , Instrumentation Devices and Systems , Tata McGraw Hill
6. Beckwith, Marangoni , Mechanical Measurements , Pearson education ,5th edition
7. D.V.S. Murty ,Transducers and Instrumentation ,Prentice-Hall India
8. AL Sutllo & Jerry D, Faulk, Industrial Instrumentation, Thomson Learning, I edition
Type of questions for University Examination
Question 1 - 8 short answer questions of 5 marks each. 2 questions from each module
Question 2-5 – There will be two choices from each module .Answer one question from each module of 15 marks
CUSAT B.Tech Degree Course – Scheme of Examinations & Syllabus 2006 EC Sem VI



CS/EB/EC/EI 605 CONTROL SYSTEM ENGINEERING
Module I.
Basic idea of control systems and their classification - differential equations of systems - linear approximation
- Laplace transform and transfer function of linear system - Model of physical system (Electrical, mechanical and
electromechanical)- block diagram - signal flow graph - Mason’s gain formula.
Module II.
Time domain analysis - Representation of deterministic signals - First order system response - S-plane root
location and transient response - impulse and step response of second order systems - performance -
characteristics in the time domain - effects of derivative and integral control - steady state response - error
constant - generalised definition of error coefficients - concepts of stability - Routh - Hurwitz criterion.
Module III.
Frequency domain analysis - frequency response - Bode plot, Polar plot, Nicol's chart - closed loop frequency
response and frequency domain performance characteristics. Stability in frequency domain. Nyquist criterion.
Module IV.
Root locus method - basic theory and properties of root loci - procedure for the construction of root loci -
complete root locus diagram. Design and compensation of feed back control system :- approaches to
compensation - cascade compensation networks and their design in the frequency domain - simple design in Splane.
Text Book:
1. Ogata K, Modern Control Engineering, Prentice Hall/Pearson
References:
1. Dorf , Modern Communication Systems ,Pearson Education
2. Franklin, Feed back Control Systems, Pearson Education
3. Kuo B. C, Automatic Control System, Prentice Hall
4. Nagoor Kani, Control Systems, R B P
5. Ogata, Discrete Time Control Systems, Pearson Education
6. Nagarath & Gopal, Control System Engineering, Wiley Eastern
7. Ramkayan, Control Engineering, Vikas Pub
8. M N Bandyopadhyaya, Control Theory , Prentice Hall
9. Glad , Control Theory , Thomson Pub
Type of questions for University Examination
Question 1 - 8 short answer questions of 5 marks each. 2 questions from each module
Question 2-5 – There will be two choices from each module .Answer one question from each module of 15 marks
CUSAT B.Tech Degree Course – Scheme of Examinations & Syllabus 2006 EC Sem VI



EC/EI 606 EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
Module I
Overview of Embedded System:- Embedded System, Categories of Embedded System, Requirements of
Embedded Systems, Challenges and Issues in Embedded Software Development, Applications of Embedded
Systems in Consumer Electronics, Control System, Biomedical Systems, Handheld computers, Communication
devices.
Module II
Embedded Hardware & Software Development Environment: - Hardware Architecture, Microcontroller
Architecture, Communication Interface Standards, Embedded System Development Process, Compilers and
assemblers, Embedded Operating systems, Types of Embedded Operating systems.
Module III
Embedded system Design: Microchip PIC16 family, PIC16F873 processor architecture- features, memory
organization, on chip peripherals, Watchdog timer, ADC, Data EEPROM, Asynchronous serial port, SPI mode,
I2C mode.
Development systems and compilers for PIC micro controllers. Interfacing with LCD, ADC, sensors, stepper
motor, key board, DAC. Examples for data acquisition and control
Module IV
Real Time & Database Applications: - Real-Time Embedded Software Development, Sending a Message over a
Serial Link, Simulation of a Process Control System, Controlling an Appliance from the RTLinux System,
Embedded Database Applications with examples like Salary Survey, Energy Meter Readings.
.
Text Books :
1. Programming for Embedded Systems- Dreamtech Software Team, Wiley Dreamtech
2. Rajkamal, Microcontrollers Architecture,programming,Interfacing and system Design, Pearson
Education ,2005
3. Nebojsamatic, The PIC Microcontroller, Mikro Elekronica
References:
1. Daniel W Lewis, Fundamentals of Embedded Software where C and Assembly Meet, Prentice Hall
2. DS101374: National Semiconductor reference manual.
3. Embedded / RealTime systems: Concepts, Design and programming, Dreamtech Software Team, Wiley
Dreamtech
4. Barnett Cox & O’Cull , Embedded C Programming and the Microchip PIC , Thomson Learning, I edition
5. 1187D: Atmel semiconductor reference manual.
6. www.atmel.com
7. DS30292B: Microchip reference manual. from www.microchip.com
8. Rajkamal, Embedded Systems - Architecture, Programming and Design , Tata McGraw Hill, 2005
Type of questions for University Examination
Question 1 - 8 short answer questions of 5 marks each. 2 questions from each module
Question 2-5 – There will be two choices from each module .Answer one question from each module of 15 marks
CUSAT B.Tech Degree Course – Scheme of Examinations & Syllabus 2006 EC Sem VI



EC 607 COMMUNICATION LABARATORY I
PART A (compulsory)
1. Active Filters - Band Pass, Band reject (II order Butterworth)-Magnitude and phase characteristics, Qfactor.
2. Amplitude modulation - Collector and Emitter modulation schemes - measurement of modulation
Indices.
3. Balanced modulator for DSB-SC signal.
4. Mixer using JFET/BJT
5. Frequency modulation using FET and VCO - Frequency deviation
6. FM generation (reactance modulator)
7. Implementation of intermediate frequency amplifier- Frequency response
8. PLL characteristics and demodulation using PLL
9. AM generation and demodulation using OP-AMPs and IC multipliers
10. SSB generation and demodulation using integrated circuits
11. AM Demodulator and Simple, Delayed and Amplified AGC
12. Time division multiplexing implementation.
13. High frequency oscillators (Any 2 from Hartely, Colpitts and Crystal oscillators)
PART B (*)
1. PAM.modulator and demodulator
2. PWM modulator and Demodulator
3. PPM modulator and Demodulator.
4. TV receiver/video system demonstration and study using demonstration kits.
5. Implementation of a communication system including a radio receiver, FM transmitter etc.
* At least two topics from part B has to be covered
Note: 50% Marks is earmarked for continuous evaluation and 50% marks for end semester
examination to be assessed by two examiners. A candidate shall secure a minimum of 50% marks
separately for the two components to be eligible for a pass in that subject.
CUSAT B.Tech Degree Course – Scheme of Examinations & Syllabus 2006 EC Sem VI
EC608 MINI PROJECT
Each batch comprising of 3 to5 students shall design, develop and realize an electronic product. Basic elements of
product design must be considered. Fully software/simulation projects are not allowed. Each student shall submit
a project report at the end of the semester. The project report should contain the design and engineering
documentation including the Bill Of Materials and test results. Product has to be demonstrated for its full design
specifications. Innovative design concepts, reliability considerations and aesthetics/ergonomic aspects taken care
of in the project shall be given due weightage.
Guidelines for evaluation:
i) Attendance and Regularity 10
ii) Work knowledge and Involvement 30
iii) End-Semester presentation & Oral examination 20
iv) Level of completion and demonstration of
functionality/specifications 25
v) Project Report 15
Total 100 marks
Note: External projects and R&D projects need not be encouraged at this level. Points (i)&(ii) to be evaluated by
the project guide & co-ordinator and the rest by the final evaluation team comprising of 3 teachers including the
project guide.